Dudekula

In India Muslims occupy an important place and form the
largest minority group. According to the 1981 Census the
Muslim population in India was 7,55,12,439, i e, 11.35 per
cent of the total population of the country. In Andhra Pradesh
Muslims constitute 8.47 per cent, which is less than the national
average. Under the National Project ‘People of India’, the author studied
14 Muslim Communities of

Andhra Pradesh and one among them
was Dudekula. The field work was conducted during 1987. The
Indian Muslims are economically backward [Mondal 1992]. In
the constitutional status too they come under the backward castes
(BC group) category. The same status is given to Dudekula in
Andhra Pradesh. A proper understanding of the problem of
backward classes requires us to view it from several perspectives
notably those of the social sciences, and from the legal studies
angle, for we are at every step confronted by the divergence
between what exists as social reality and what ought to exist
according to the laws we have created for ourselves [Andre
Beteille 1983]. The present paper deals with problem of inequality
faced by the Dudekula, an oscillating community, between the
Hindu and Islamic religions. The problems faced by them because
of this, in socio-economic and religious fields are discussed here
in brief. Dudekula are numerically a small community. They are known
by synonyms such as ‘Pinjari’, ‘Bhai’, ‘Panjakuttai’, and ‘Panjari’. The other synonyms recorded by Thurston (1909) are ‘Ladaf’
and ‘Nurbash’. All these names are recorded at the time of census
taking exercises and are found to be the corrupted forms of ‘naddaf’
(a cotton-dresser) and ‘nur-baf’ (weaver). In Telugu, the state
language of Andhra Pradesh, ‘Dude’ means cotton and ‘ekuta’
means cleaning. Hence they are locally called the Dudekula, the
cotton cleaners and mattress makers. They are mentioned as “a
Mohammadan caste of cotton-cleaners, rope and tape makers”
[Francis loc cit by Thruston: 1909]. Dudekula, in Andhra Pradesh are distributed in the districts
bodering Tamil Nadu such as Gudiatham, Amburu, Thiruttani,
Puttur ad Chittoor. They are found in large numbers in the villages
of Regallu, Domalacheruvu, Kallur, Mangalepeta, Kalikiri,
Rompicherla, Arakonda and Nayanapakala of Andhra Pradesh. Telugu is their mother tongue and it is used for communication
at home and with outsiders. They also use the Telugu script. The
personal name giving pattern of Dudekula is similar to the Hindus. That is, they not only follow the Hindu style of adding the name
of the place of their origin, i e, place of residence. But also attach
honourable suffix such as ‘anna’ (brother), ‘akka’ (sister), ‘appa’
(father) and ‘amma’ (mother) to them. With this they sound like
this: Kasi-anna, Kasi-akka, Hussain-appa and Hussain-amma. In
case of women they have dropped the honorific suffix such as
‘bibi’ or ‘bi’ and adopted the Hindu suffix of amma instead This
at first appearance sound that they are Hindus. However they
have been changing the naming pattern and sons are now named
with suffixes saheb and daughters with bibi. Of late, having come
under the influence of the Islamic groups, they either speak Urdu
or Arabic. So a few had told the author that they had felt ashamed
to call themselves Muslims and had also hesitated to establish
social and conjugal contacts with other Muslims. Of late, a few
rich Dudekula are trying to identify with others by shunning
Hindu customs and manners and have began to learn Urdu as
well as Arabic. To some extent they have also learnt to speak
Dakkani, a variety of Urdu which evolved in the Deccan Plateau
of India, through outsiders to the region. Etymological Origin of the Community
The author recorded a legend, told in the fomr of a local Telugu
poem, by an elderly Dudekulu man, about the origin of the
community. It is as follows:
E Kulumani Nannevaruadigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustulaku, Durmargalaku, Donnapothulaku,
Antuna Puttende Kulame
Muttantuna Perigende Kulame
Antuna Shivudu, Muttuna Murudu, Entana Eswarudu,
Mugguru Murthula Delepende Ekulame
Entilopala illu kattu koni
Kanti lopala kaduru pettukoni
Narayana ani naram Thesikoni
Panchadri ani thadiki vesukoni
Govinda ani gudipa Deesikoni
Gaba gaba, Daba Daba, Ekenide ekulam
Dudekuni Kulame Nakulam
E Kulamani Nannevaru adigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustulaku, Durmargulaku, Dunnapothulaku,
Panchadri ani Panche thesikoni
Erabramha ani Shalava Kappukoni
Poojala nadependikulame Nakulam
Vantari gaadu E Kulame Sree Zantana
Kalasinde Kulame Nakulam
Dudekula Muslims of Andhra Pradesh
An Ethnographic Profile
An ethnographic profile of Dudekula Muslims, a little known community in Andhra Pradesh
finds that the community, converting to Islam generations ago, continued to follow old
traditions for a long time earning harsh criticism from both religious communities. In recent
years however, the younger generations have increasingly taken to adopting Islamic rituals,
traditions, customs and manners in the hope of securing a higher social status. S A A SAHEB
Economic and Political Weekly November 15, 2003 4909
Ekulamani Nannevaru adigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustalaku, Durmargulaku, Donnapothulaku. The above legend narrates the plight of a person if you ask
me my caste what can I tell you, it is low and people looked
down upon me and treated me inferior to them because of the
nature of my calling and worshipping of the Hindu gods such
as ‘Sree’ (Sree Rama). ‘Erabramha’ (Hindu saint), ‘Shivudu’
(Lord Shiva), ‘Murudu’ (Lord Muruga), and ‘Eswarudu’ (Lord
Eswara)’. This also suggests the faith and praise they have
towards Hindu gods and saints. It also highlights that the three
important Hindu gods of the partheon Brahma, Vishnu and
Eswara are at the centre of their group, gave them the occupation
of cotton cleaning. They claim they are the descendants of those
first people who lead the life of cotton cleaners. Finally they
accept that they are not the descendants of Syed Muslims who
trace their origin to the prophet of Islam. They occupy an intermedia
position – between Muslims and the Hindus. But the Hindu caste
groups such as the reddy, the naidu and the balija who live in
their neighbourhood say that the Dudekula are Muslims because
they worship Allah, go to mosque and fast during the month of
Ramzan. The Dudekula are said to be Hindu converts to Islam [Francis
as quoted by Thurston: 1909]. This statement is supported by
the narration that the Dudekula are the descendants of those
Hindus who got converted to Islam by the Muslim Sufi saint,
Bava Faqruddin. Prior to becoming a Sufi saint he was the king
of Seistan, in Persia and later became an Islamic religious mendicant
(dervish). He eventually reached Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu
and became a disciple of the celebrated saint, Tabri Alam Pasha. After his admission into holy orders of Sufism, Faqruddin was
told to travel about, and plant his walking stick made out of the
root of the Pilu tree (Salvadora Persica), wherever, he halted. Normally the twigs of this plant are used as tooth brush by
mendicants. He was told further that the place where it sprouted
would form his permanent residence. When Faqruddin reached
a hillock near Penukonda, presently in Anantapur district of
Andhra Pradesh, as usual, he planted the walking stick and it
sprouted. Accordingly he decided to make this place his permanent
abode. But this place was close to the important Hindu temple
of Gangamma (village deity), and the idea of a Muhammadan
settling there enraged the Hindus. They asked him to leave the
place. He not only refused to do that, but allowed his disciples,
of whom a number had collected, to slaughter the sacred bull
belonging to the temple and eat it. The king of Penugonda came
to know of this and decided to punish Faqruddin and his disciples
by death. So he collected an army and attacked them. But his
efforts were in vain. Then the king, ordered his men to kill them
by poisoning. Accordingly cakes mixed with poison were prepared,
and sent to Faqruddin and his disciples. The saint, though
he knew that the cakes were poisoned, partook the meal. There
was no ill-effect on them. A few days later, the king was attacked
by chronic disease, and he was given up by his court physicians
as a hopeless case. As a last resort, he was taken to the saint,
Faqruddin, who offered him one of the the poisoned cakes to
eat.After eating that he was completely cured. Falling at the feet
of the saint, the king begged for pardon. Later he also gave away
Penugonda to the saint. But the offer was rejected and in turn
the saint asked that the temple be converted into a mosque. The
king it is said, granted this request. With this it is said, large
number of Hindus embraced Islam. It was these people who are
now considered to be the ancestors of the Dudekula of the present
study. It is because of this that the saint Faqruddin of Penukonda
is regarded as their family saint. The Dudekula are said to be the progeny of the invading
Musalman soldiers and the local women [Francis as quoted by
Thurston: 1909]. The above statement is also supported by Rahim
(1971) who says that there were Muslim settlements in south
India, before the advent of Islam in India. The Arab traders who
visited India for trade, used to marry the local women, who speak
the native language. Their progeny are the Labbai and Navayat
Muslims, in Tamil Nadu [Saheb 1998]. It may be true in case
of Dudekula Muslim also who has the Telugu language as
their mother tongue. To overcome these lapses or stigma a few
well to do Dudekula men want to marry women specially
from the Dakkani Muslim families, who speak Urdu. Those who
have married try to claim a higher social status by claiming
alliance to the Islamic sectarian groups such as Shaik and Syed
in the locality. Food and Food Habits
The Dudekula by tradition are non-vegetarians and eat both
vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods. There is a popular saying
among them that a Muslim means he will definitely eat beef,
if not he is not a Muslim (Thurakodi maddakupudithe thintadu,
Kafir aythe thenadu). It clearly means that the Dudekula are
beef eaters. Islamic code of conduct forbids them from eating
pork and carrion. Their staple food is rice. They also consume
all types fo pulses of grams (‘alasandulu’), turdal (‘kandulu’)
and horsegram (‘vuluvalu’). Their cooking medium is groundnut
oil. A few use palm oil which is sold at lower price
by fair price shops run by the government at a cheaper rate. They also consume local available roots and tubers. Men often
consume alcoholic beverages – both factory and home made
arrack, ‘sarai’. Social Divisions, Hierarchy and Stratification
The Dudekula community is endogamous.They are further
divided on lineages such as Amburollu, Macharla, Gudiyathamollu,
Nagurollu, Kallurollu, Ratollu, and Palemollu. Persons belong
to a lineage are considered as brothers and sisters (‘dayadulu’)
and marriage alliances among them are not made. For example,
Dudekula with the Ratollu surname cannot marry among themselves. Hence for marriage alliance they go to Amburollu which
is treated as ‘menarikam’. Thus, the Dudekula follow exogamy
based on surname.This type of alliance that includes the dropping
of parallel cousin marriages, is a Hindu practice, but is followed
by the Dudekulas. They marry cross cousins: father’s sister’s
daughters (FSD) and mother’s brother’s daughters (MBD). As
a result they are looked down upon by other Muslims. To
overcome this, now they are adopting the customs and manners
of the more Islamised groups. I
Stratification of Muslim Community
Stratification on the basis of caste is the characteristic feature of
Hindu society [Gurumurthy 1976, 1982]. Another characteristic
feature of the Hindu society is its ‘institutionalised inequality’
4910 Economic and Political Weekly November 15, 2003
or ‘hierarchical gradation’. Within a caste society each group
is ranked in relation to the other [Sinha 1967]. The Indian Muslims
also have caste- like groups. However, unlike Hindu castes which
are essentially based on the traditional varna model, the Muslim
‘castes’ lack both the comparable ideological frame and the
tendency towards rigid elaborateness [Ali 1973, Ahamad 1973]. In case of the present study the Muslim castes are occupationally
and culturally different. As I have already narrated I studied 14 Muslim ‘groups’ in
Andhra Pradesh. They are Syed, Shaik, Pathan, Habbi, Khureshi,
Attar-saibulu, Atar, Gair-e-Mehadi,, Chekketakare, Borewale,
Garadi, Hazam and Fhakir-budbudki and Dudekula.These are
formed on the basis of their traditional occupation and are
endogamous. In social hierarchy the Syeds occupy the top place,
since they form the traditional clergy.They claim that they are
the true descendants of the prophet. Shaiks claim the second place,
who are belived to be a ruling class. The Pathans claim the third
position. They are said to be the descendants of those warriors,
who sacrificed their lives for the propagation of Islam. The Labbais occupy fourth place.They get their lower status
because they are the descendants of Arabs, who came to India
for trade and not to propagate Islam. They also married native
women and settled in India. In the fifth place are the khureshi,
the descendants of the khureshi tribe of Arabia, to which the
prophet belongs. Attar-saibulu, the perfume (Attar) traders, come
next. Atar, who sell petty domestic items used at the time of
festivals of Muslims and Gair-e-Mehdi are below them. They
are considered a Shia sect. The Chekketakare who are traders
in mortar vehicles, Borewale who are the palm leaf weavers and
Garadi, jugglers are placed in the sixth place. At the lowest level
come the Dudekula the cotton cleaners, barbers (hazam), and
mendicants (Fakir-budbudki). The Dudekula are placed in the
last category because they use a thread made out of the intestinal
tissue from the dead cattle, while cleaning cotton. Since they work
touching dead cattle, occupy a lower place in the hierarchy and
are not eligible for marriage alliance with the above said Muslim
groups. Status of Women
Customarily, the Dudekula women wear vermilion (kumkum)
on the forehead. With this they look like Hindu women. The
Dudekula women do not cover their face with cloth (purdah),
which is the symbol of Muslims belongings to upper strata. They
go out to undertake agricultural activities such as paddy seedling
transplantation, weeding and harvesting. Such outdoor jobs are
not attended to by upper class Muslim women and especially
those from the Shaik and Syed groups. Hence, the Dudekula
women occupy a much lower status. Of late they have also started
adopting customs and manners of Muslim women belonging to
upper strata to acquire a better status. Life Cycle Rituals
The major life cycle rituals observed by the Dudekula are the
birth (‘purudu’), marriage (‘pendli’), puberty (‘nalugu’),
circumscision (‘vadugulu’) and death (‘savu’). All the terminology
used here is like the Hindus, similar to that of any lower
caste Hindus. Among the Dudekula birth of a child brings pollution
(‘mylu’) and it is observed for 40 days. Hindus observe
a purificatory ritual (‘Nalugu’) and so do the Dudekula (‘Chella’). Giving a name to the new born is observed in the Hindu way
by consulting an astrologer and preparing the horoscope on the
basis of day, time and place of birth of the child. Though all
these practices are un-Islamic, they are still practised by the
Dudekula. Circumscision is performed for boys when they are in the age
group of five to eight years. Observations of this ritual do not
bring pollution to the participants. This is the only important
ritual observed by the Dudekula in accordance with Islamic
tradition. The Dudekula celebrate the puberty (nalugu) ritual similar to
Hindus. It is performed on girls, once in their life time at the
time of her first menstruation. The girl is secluded from rest of
the family for 10 days. During this pollution period, she is not
allowed to say her prayers and also not allowed entry into the
kitchen. On the eleventh day the purificatory ritual is conducted. The maternal uncle of the girl plays an important role on this
occasion, by arranging for the ritual and bearing the expenses
for it. By tradition he has the first right to marry the girl and
so he observes this ritual spending lot of money. All these
activities are similar to those observed by the Hindus. Among
the much islamised Muslim groups the maternal uncle does not
play any of these roles. Marriage is known as ‘pendli’ among the Dedukula Muslims. The rite is officiated by a clergy called Moulana Rahim Saheb
(Hazarat). During the marriage occasion, the Dudekula conduct
the ritual of lighting the sacred oil lamp. This lamp is known
as ‘Kasi Deepam’ among the Hindus or ‘Kanduridiyyi’ among
the Dudekula. This is exclusively a Hindu ritual but performed
by the Dudekula since they are Hindu converts. Even several
generations after their conversion to Islam, they have not abandoned
this tradition. Of late they have adopted the custom wherein
three painted pots (kalasghade) are arranged, the way Hindus
of the locality do. A nuclear type of family is of the order among the Dudekula. There are also avoidance relations between mother-in-law (‘atta’),
and son-in-law (‘alludu’), father-in-law (‘mama’) and daughterin-
law (‘kodalu’). Joking relations are generally observed between
sister-in-law (‘vadina’) and husband’s younger brother (‘maridi’),
elder sister’s husband (‘bava’) and wife’s younger sister
(‘maradalu’), grand parents (‘avvatata’) and grand children
(‘manumadu, manumaralu’). Figure: Social Hierarchy of Muslim Castes in Andhra Pradesh
↓
I – Syed
↓
II – Shaik
↓
III –Pathan
↓
IV – Labbai
↓
V – Khureshi, Attar-Saibulu, Atar, Gair-e-Mehadi
↓
VI – Chekketakare, Borewale, Garadi
↓
VII – Dudekula, Hazam, Fhakir-budbudki
Economic and Political Weekly November 15, 2003 4911
Among the Dudekula death is known as Savu. Funeral for the dead is performed within twenty four hours
of death. They also observe a death pollution period for forty
days. And on the last day a purificatory ritual is observed. The
purificatory ritual is known as ‘Divasalu’. All members of the
group who share the surname of the departed soul, observe
pollution rules. They are not supposed to perform any festival
activities for one year. There after they are supposed to ritually
remember the dead at the time of Shaban festival (‘Peddala
Panduga Rooju’), annually. In Cuddapah district of Andhra
Pradesh, on this occasion the Dudekula light a sacred lamp at
the tomb of the dead. All these rituals and observances are similar
to funerary customs of Hindus. Economic Activities
The traditional occupation of the Dedukula community is
cotton cleaning (‘dude ekuta’). In view of the changes which
have come in the matters of dress and consumer pattern, the
younger generation of the community are not coming forward
to learn it. Apart from the low income, the stigma attached to
the profession has made them shy away from it. So, they have
become petty traders or work as small time contractors in seasonal
fruits and vegetables such as tamarind (‘chinta pundu chetlu’),
mango (‘mamidi thoopu’), and tomato so on. A few have taken
up trading in artificial pearls (‘mutyalu’) and diamonds (‘vajjralu’). Others have purchased irrigated land and cultivated it. As a whole
the Dudekula when compared to past, dealing in cash have
become mobile and move from one weekly market to another
(‘Santhalu’) and easy and quick means of transport has come
to their help. III
Mechanism of Social Control
The Dudekula have a council of elders belong to a lineage
(‘Kulajamath’). This is similar to the caste councils of the Hindus
in its name, composition and function. The head man of the
council is known as ‘Pedda manishi’. Traditionally the Dudekula
council worked for the welfare of its people and supervised
marriage and death rituals. At the time of settlement of marriages,
the council meets as a must and collects Rs 1,000 from each of
the bridal parents, as marriage security and also serves as witness
to the proceedings. After the marriage settlement ceremony, if
one of the parties is not willing to have the alliance, the entire
amount is paid to the other party. So that they can negotiate the
marriage with a new party. In a few cases the amount so collected
is not paid to the aggrieved party and instead used to celebrate
the marriages for the orphans. Religious Attributes
The Dudekulas are Muslims by religion and profess the folk
version of Islam. As a rule they do not have family, clan, village
deities, the way the Hindus have and pray in the name of one
god – Allah. But they are affiliated to the Muslim saints (pirs)
of the nearby dargah. To observe Muharram festival, the ‘muzawar’
is selected from their own community. To officiate over their
marriage, and death rituals a clergy (hazarat) from the Syed
Muslim sect is engaged. The weekly congregations on Fridays,
are led by the Hazarat. The sermon (bayan) is conducted in Urdu
or Arabic and later it is translated into the local language Telugu,
since the Dudekula do not understand the Urdu or Arabic. They
regularly visit the Muslim shrines (dargahs)on pilgrimage. As
has been already stated, the Dudekula consider the saint Penugonda
Baba, i e, Faqruddin, their patron saint and attend his annual
funeral ceremony every year. Apart from this they also go on
pilgrimage to the dargahs of Nagore-e-Sharief at Nagore, Tabrialm
Pasha at Trichy to take vows or pay their offerings. When they
are there they offer the Fathiha, the ritual of reciting the first
page of the Quran in the name of the saint and also offer food
to the poor at the dargah en masse. Inter-Community Linkages
Traitionally the Dudekulas have inter-community linkages
with their neighbouring Hindu castes such as the agriculturists
(reddy), barbers (mangali), and washermen (chakali). To earn
their bread the poorer men and women work on the farmland
owned by the reddy as agricultural labourers. They collect their
wages both in cash as well as kind. They have to depend on reddy
for any financial help needed to perform their children’s marriage
or to pay hospital bills. The circumcision to boys are performed
by a Muslim barber (mangali). For his services the family traditionally
paid him in kind, but now-a-days they pay him in cash. A few families rather prefer to take the services of doctors in
hospitals to perform circumcision. In olden days when the local
reddy farmers cultivated cotton (pratty) they used to supply it
to the Dudekula. This served as the raw material to them in their
profession. In turn they cleaned it and made mattresses, etc, and
delivered it back to the reddy. In turn they got paddy as their
wages. Now since the cotton is not grown locally, the linkages
have changed. The Dudekula purchase raw material from the
nearby market and also sell their prepared goods in the market
and for cash. With regards to commensality rules the Dudekula take water
and cooked food from the reddy and naidu castes. They also
accept food and water from other Muslim groups such as Shaik,
Syed and Pathans. But do not take the same from the Mala and
Madiga, the two local ex-untouchable scheduled castes. The
Dudekula celebrate and actively participate in the festivals such
as Ramzan and Bakr-id, along with other Muslim groups who
live in the neighbourhood. They allow Hindus to participate in
the celebration of Muharram festival. They take the cenotaphs
(panjas) to the Hindus localities in the villages and share the joy
with them as a mark of universal brotherhood. A few lower caste
Hindus offer cenotaphs during the festival as a mark of the
fulfilment of their vows. During the Muhurram festival as a custom, the Hindu washerman
leads the procession by carrying the lit sacred torch. The Hindu
barbers who are also traditional pipesmen of the village, play
holy music during the procession. The members of the Mala and
Madiga castes offer their services by blowing pipes and beating
drums. Like this for ten days, the Muharram festival is celebrated
with all colour and gaiety and merry-making. With all this it
appears as if this is the festival celebrated by all castes and their
participation and involvement is very much appreciated by the
Muslims. There are persons who are businessmen and clergy among the
Dudekula. A few are also teachers and hold other white-collar
4912 Economic and Political Weekly November 15, 2003
jobs. However there are nobody in politics either at village or
state level. Attitude towards Development Programmes
In Andhra Pradesh the Dudekulas are listed under economically
and educationally backward list of castes. Hence, they get all
educational facilities provided by the government such as free
books, fee concession and free hostel facilities. They also get
seats in professional courses such as medicine and engineering
under the reservation category. Formal education up to secondary
level is available for both boys and girls. As a result today in
the villages there are more number of literates in the Dudekula
community than compared to older generation. A few women
who are educated are occupying posts in government agencies
as teachers and clerks. The Dudekula are also becoming health
conscious and are taking instructions and other help from the
government health and medical department. Village level health
workers visit villages under their jurisdiction once in a month
to offer their services to the needy. It is found that the Dudekula
are favourable towards the family planning programmes and their
women have undergone sterilisation. The Dudekula have also realised the importance of safe drinking
water. Now they get drinking water from both dug and bore
wells for which money and technology are provided by the
government. They also avail the indigenous or traditional medicare
facilities available in their individual community. They take
treatment from them to cure themselves from evil spirits
(‘balagraha’), fits (‘murcha’) and paralysis (‘pachavayuvu’). In
the fields of economic development the Dudekulas are utilising
loan facilities available under the Integrated Rural Development
Programme (IRDP). They get information about all these government
programmes from the block development office, mandal
office and village administrative office. Often such educative
information is obtained from political party workers. The Dudekula
are also actively involved in politics and a few are members to
political parties such as the Indian National Congress, Janata
Party and Telugu Desam Party. The localities where the Dudekula
stay are well connected with roads and railway. They also have
post office facility in the villages. Since the Dudekulas come under the backward castes list, they
are provided with free housing facility in the form of colonies. They houses are electrified too and they can watch T V and listen
to radio. They use firewood for domestic use, available in the
nearby forest. Kerosene is used both as fuel and for lighting
purposes in the houses. Dudekula use both organic manure such
as cow dung (‘penta’) and green leaves (‘akulu-alumulu’) and
chemical fertilisers to enrich their agricultural land. They also
use insecticides and pesticides. The Dudekula also get their quota
of foodgrain such as rice and edible oil and kerosene oil, etc,
through the fair price shops in subsidised rates. A few have opened
their accounts in banks – mostly cooperative banks, which
facilitates them in financial transactions. Conclusion
Dudekula were originally Hindu who converted to Islam a few
generations ago. Till a few years ago they oscillated between
the two religious traditions. Of late they have come under total
Islamic ritual, tradition, customs and manners. Because of their
poverty and also the un Islamic customs they practised, they
had a low status. By adopting Islamic customs now they are
drawing a better status. The urge to claim higher status has
turned the younger generation to learn Urdu and Arabic. Their
women have begun observing seclusion rules, dress code and
have dropped the Hindu custom of wearing kumkum on their
forehead. Though quite a few of their rituals were Hindu, they
are now renaming them with Urdu terms but still observe them. They have dropped observing the puberty ritual for the girls. The
role of maternal uncle has also dispensed with. They have also
adopted the practice of parallel cousin marriages. As a result the
clan exogamy has been abandoned. Now-a-days marriages are
settled and observed as per Islamic tradition. Both Dudekula men
and women have accepted modern education and have occupied
jobs in different fields. All these have helped the Dudekula elevate
their status in the society.
[The author is grateful to the ex-director general and the chief editor of the
national project “People of India”, Anthropological Survey of India, Kolkata
and the present director, for providing him an opportunity to undertake
research work on Dudekula Muslims. The views expressed in this paper are
solely of author’s. The author is also indebted to K G Gurumurthy, retired
professor of Anthropology, Davangere, for his comments and suggestions
on the paper.]
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