Converso Jewish Antwerp in the XVI & XVII Centuries

03/09/2026

"..This book has some claim to be the first ever published on social policy. There have been various social policies since ancient times, and of course there were things written about welfare and charity. However, most of what had been written before these documents appeared - in the Bible or the Talmud, Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah (Maimonides, 1180), or Luther's Ordinances on a common chest (Salter, 1926) - were laws, policies or instructions, rather than
discussions of the subject. Aquinas’s discussion of beneficence and almsgiving in the Summa Theologica is also relevant (Aquinas, c. 1274, II-II, questions 31 and 32), but it is still mainly about the moral duty of charity, not about social welfare. None of these works is recognisable as a study of the social policy in the contemporary sense. This one is.

De Subventione Pauperum was a commissioned academic report. Juan-Luis Vives had moved to Bruges at the age of 20, after a period at the Sorbonne, and from 1517 he held a position at Louvain. Vives first expressed an interest in poor relief in a letter in 1522, which shows, Mattheeussen argues, that he had formed an
interest while still at Bruges (Mattheeusen, 1986, pp 91-2); but in the period when the reform of welfare provision was being most
actively debated, from 1523 to 1525, Vives was mainly in England, where he had a post in Cardinal College, at Corpus Christi, Oxford.
During this period, he travelled frequently between England and Flanders and he returned to Flanders in the summer of 1524 to
be married. He most probably learned about the plans for Ypres while he was still in England: Tobriner suggests that Lauwereyens,
a former mayor of Ypres, and Vives were in London together in the spring of 1525 (Tobriner, 1999, p 16). It has been suggested
that Vives was working on the De Subventione Pauperum much earlier (Norena, 1970, p 96n), but the claim is tenuous. He said in a letter in 1525 that he was working on something stunningly ambitious. There is no good reason to suppose that it is the project on welfare reform that he was talking about. Several of his
later works were far more adventurous intellectually than this book is. De Disciplinis was an attempt to summarise the scope of human knowledge; that seems to have had the same kind of aspiration as the French Encyclopédie of the 18th century (see Watson, 1913). If that is right, De Subventione Pauperum was little more than a distraction from the main academic project – a familiar position for academics nowadays.
Before this commission, Vives was already an established and respected academic writer. Though relatively young, he had
published some major works, including De institutione feminae Christianae (On the education of Christian women) in 1523 and
Introductio ad sapientam (Introduction to wisdom) in 1524. He had an unusually wide range of academic interests. Few people had
written about the subjects that Vives was ready to tackle - for example, love, marriage, education and the role of women.."

03/09/2026

13/08/2026

Gracia her Hebrew name was Hannah was born in 1510 in Lisbon Portugal to the wealthy and aristocratic Nasi family of Marrano Jews originating from Spain Marrano was the term commonly used for the newly converted Jews or Conversos as they were called They were officially al lowed to enter the world o...

31/05/2026

The arrival of the new Portuguese Christians

"..Located in the Flanders region, Antwerp is known as the center of the global diamond trade. The city, the second most important port on the continent, is home to one of the most traditional Jewish communities in Western Europe. Unfortunately, the future of this community is worrying, as Belgium has experienced decades of anti-Semitic attacks and, in recent years, a violent increase in anti-Jewish and anti-Israel demonstrations.
Antwerp's history dates back to the Roman Empire, where archaeological remains of a settlement called "Antverpia" dating back to the 2nd century CE have been discovered. Conquered by the Franks in the 4th century and Christianized in the 7th, the city became a major urban and commercial center during the Middle Ages due to its strategic location on the banks of the Scheldt River. It was incorporated into the Duchy of Brabant, a state of the Holy Roman Empire.1, established itself as a strategic commercial hub. Its economic growth contributed to the emergence of a prosperous and powerful urban bourgeoisie with significant political influence.

In 1292, Antwerp received a Charter of Privileges from Duke John I of Brabant.2 which mentioned Jews among its inhabitants. Until the mid-14th century, it housed a small Jewish community. Between 1346 and 1353, the Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague, swept through much of Europe. The scourge, which wiped out between a third and a half of the European population, was falsely attributed to the Jews, who were accused of poisoning the wells with a substance they secretly produced, believed to be the causative agent of the disease, according to the beliefs of the time. Europe was gripped by strong anti-Semitism, with the massacre of thousands of Jews and the destruction of their property.

Antwerp was no exception, and the violent pogroms that broke out there put an end to the local Jewish community. It would take over a hundred years for a new Charter of Privileges, only granted in 1480, to allow our people to return to the city.

The arrival of the new Portuguese Christians
In the late 14th and 15th centuries, Spain was the scene of bloody events, after which Antwerp received a wave of Jewish converts to Christianity. In 1391, Seville was gripped by pogroms that resulted in massacres and thousands of forced abjurations. On March 31, 1492, the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, signed the Edict of Expulsion, which forced the emigration of all Jews who refused baptism. After the intercession of thirty prominent figures in the Spanish Jewish community, King John II of Portugal (1481-1495) allowed 600 Jewish families to settle in his domains, upon payment of 600 gold cruzados—an exorbitant sum for the time. Other refugees were only allowed to remain there for eight months in exchange for payment. per capita, of eight gold cruzados.

With the death of King John II, his nephew, King Manuel the Fortunate, ascended to the throne. The new monarch's marriage to Isabella, daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, marked the end of the relative tranquility of our people in Portugal. The marriage contract required that Portugal be "purified" of Jews. The Edict of Expulsion was signed by King Manuel in December 1496. However, in February 1497, to prevent the loss of wealth and talent, the king ordered the entire Jewish population to appear in churches the following month for a forced baptism. However, a large portion of these converts3 They began to follow Christianity only in appearance, remaining faithful to the Laws of Moses in secret. They were crypto-Jews. In the 16th century, many of these families settled in Antwerp.

Spanish rule (1506–1713)
Antwerp was one of Europe's most important mercantile centers in the early 16th century. Its port hosted goods from the East Indies, a lucrative trade organized and controlled by the Portuguese Crown after Vasco da Gama's first voyage to Southeast Asia (1497-1499). As a result, many Lisbon merchants and bankers began opening branches in the Flemish city.

In 1526, Portuguese converts obtained safe conduct to Antwerp through a decree of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, and Lord of the Netherlands. In 1537, they received residency rights and protection from potential accusations from the Church of being "Judaizers."

The Mendes family was one of the 600 families that had settled in Portugal after the expulsion from Spain. Its head, Francisco, commissioned his brother Diogo to open a branch of the House of Mendes in Antwerp. One of the most powerful financial institutions in Renaissance Europe, the House of Mendes extended substantial loans to monarchs such as Charles V and Henry VIII of England. Diogo became a spice trade magnate and organized a clandestine "escape route" for Portuguese New Christians to the Netherlands, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, or, in some cases, England through a network of agents spread across several European cities.

In 1536, the Vatican authorized the establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal. Consequently, Francisco Mendes' widow, Doña Gracia Nasi (1510–1569), known as "La Señora" (see Morashá ed. 56), left for Antwerp with Diogo's help. La Señora profoundly marked the history of the Sephardim. Always ready to help her people, she had inherited from her husband, in addition to his immense fortune, the mission of protecting the converts. Among other actions, she led, together with Diogo, a group of new Christians who sought the support of the papal nuncio to halt the Inquisition's activities in Portugal. Her nephew and son-in-law, Don Joseph Nasi (1524–1579), also stood out as an influential figure among the citizens of Antwerp.

Spanish authorities did not permit the open practice of Judaism, and from time to time, conversos were accused of being "fake Christians" and of maintaining commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire. In 1532, Diogo Mendes was arrested on charges of being a Judaizer, but managed to exonerate himself. With the intensification of persecution of New Christians in Antwerp, Diogo was persuaded by La Señora to leave the city, but he died in 1543. Dona Gracia herself left the following year for Italy and, in 1553, left Europe for Istanbul, where she openly embraced Judaism.

In addition to accusing the conversos of practicing Judaism in secret, the Spanish authorities suspected them of supporting the Protestant Reformation. Due to this and changes in the political and economic situation, they changed their policy toward the New Christians, most of whom were expelled from Antwerp in the mid-16th century. The municipal government tried unsuccessfully to prevent the banishment. By 1550, most of the conversos had left the city, with the exception of a few families who, encouraged by the growing influence of Calvinism among the local population, remained.

In 1556, Philip II, son of Charles V, ascended the throne and intensified his efforts to impose Catholicism in the Netherlands. Thus, to combat Protestantism, the Holy Inquisition was established there, not as a single, centralized court, as in Spain, but with judges appointed for specific cases. Its main activities were to combat heretics, including Judaizers, and to suppress the Reform movement, particularly Calvinism.

Philip II's attempt to impose Catholicism and centralize power in the region contributed to the outbreak of the Eighty Years' War in 1568.5 between the United Provinces of the Netherlands and Spain. In 1585, after the recapture of Antwerp, Spain implemented a policy of religious intolerance in the city. Many Protestants and converts fled to the Northern Provinces, especially Amsterdam, which had a Protestant majority. Of the 85 families of the "Portuguese nation" in Antwerp in 1571, only 46 remained by 1619. However, clandestine synagogues still existed, as attested by a 1585 report from the Lisbon Inquisition.

In 1648, the Peace of Münster ended the Eighty Years' War and formalized the independence of the Northern Netherlands, which became the Republic of the United Provinces, with a Protestant majority. The Catholic south remained under Habsburg rule. With the end of the conflict, many of the "Portuguese nation" returned to Antwerp, where they continued to observe the Laws of Moses in secret. Although there were clandestine synagogues, they turned to the Amsterdam community for their religious needs. In 80, the families of the "Portuguese nation" suffered a severe shock when one of the sons of Diego Curiel, from one of the most powerful Converso families, was forcibly baptized under the claim that, having been born in a Catholic country, he rightfully belonged to the Church.

In 1694, after the discovery of yet another clandestine synagogue, the bishop of Antwerp demanded that the archduke expel the entire "Portuguese nation." Consulted by the Council of State, the burgomasters denied the request, responding that there was no reason to persecute the converts, who had brought the diamond trade to the city, were prosperous, and caused no disturbances.."

Located in the Flanders region, Antwerp is known as the center of the global diamond trade. The city, the second most important port on the continent, is home to one of the most traditional Jewish communities in Western Europe. Unfortunately, the future of this community is worrying, as Belgium has....

08/03/2026

“..We have been very honored by your visit and grateful for the music sent; my daughter Leonora will sing [the songs].”[1] Huygens had recently brought the Duartes some of his compositions, a collection of pieces for solo voice and basso continuo in Latin, Italian, and French from his Pathodia sacra et profana (Paris, 1647). It must have pleased Huygens to know that the celebrated musician Leonora Duarte (1610 ีอะไรใหม่ –78), Gaspar’s oldest child, would perform his music, likely accompanied by members of her musically talented family.

'Music, Business, and Belonging in the Antwerp Salon of Leonora Duarte (1610–1678) from The Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music

08/03/2026

"..Gracia Mendes Nasi [active in Antwerp between 1536 or 1538 and 1549] – also known as Dona Gracia, Hannah Nasi or by her Christianized name, Beatriz de Luna Miques – was considered the richest woman in the world in the 16th century. The Mendes bank which she led traded in goods, including diamonds and black pepper – then more valuable than gold. But Beatriz had a dangerous secret: She and her family were conversos – Jews forced to publicly convert to Christianity, in order to avoid expulsion from Portugal. Behind closed doors, they continued practicing their Jewish faith.."

The Librarians | The National Library of Israel

21/02/2026

Special Hispanic Heritage Month YouTube Live Event - Conversation and Music Performance Celebrating Hispanic Women ComposersAbout the Program:The talk will h...

30/01/2026

Congres Constantijn Huygens. Een leven in brieven, 2 december 2022.Constantijn Huygens onderhield decennialang een hartelijke correspondentie met de Antwerps...

29/01/2026

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20/12/2025

Is historisch Joods Amsterdam denkbaar zonder Joods en converso Antwerpen?
Kort antwoord: nauwelijks, al is een alternatief theoretisch voorstelbaar.

Na de Val van Antwerpen (1585) verplaatste een aanzienlijk deel van het Sefardisch-converso handels- en kennismilieu zich via Hamburg naar Amsterdam. Deze groep bracht kapitaal, internationale netwerken en culturele infrastructuur mee die essentieel waren voor de snelle institutionele opbouw van Joods Amsterdam. Reeds in 1597 ontstond de eerste Sefardische gemeente (Beth Jacob), gevolgd door Neveh Shalom (1608) en de fusie tot Talmud Torah (1639). Deze vroege consolidatie is zonder Zuid-Nederlandse instroom moeilijk verklaarbaar.

Op het vlak van boekdrukkunst was Amsterdam in de 17e eeuw het belangrijkste Hebreeuwse drukcentrum van Europa. De drukkerij van Menasseh ben Israel (actief vanaf ca. 1626), zoon van een converso uit het Antwerpse milieu, publiceerde in Hebreeuws, Spaans en Latijn en bediende een transnationaal publiek. Deze meertaligheid en schaal waren rechtstreeks schatplichtig aan Antwerpse converso-ervaringen.

Economisch sluit Amsterdam aan bij de erfenis van Antwerpse wereldhandel. Figuren als Duarte Nunes da Costa en Joseph Penso de la Vega (auteur van Confusión de confusiones, 1688) tonen hoe converso-netwerken de Amsterdamse beurscultuur mede vormgaven. Sefardisch kapitaal financierde niet alleen handel, maar ook religieuze en sociale instellingen.

Ten slotte het intellectueel-religieuze klimaat: de converso-achtergrond — gekenmerkt door religieuze dwang en identiteitssplitsing — creëerde ruimte voor kritische theologie en filosofie. Zonder dit milieu zijn zowel Menasseh ben Israels gematigd messianisme als Spinoza’s radicale rationalisme (excommunicatie 1656) nauwelijks denkbaar.

Zonder Antwerpen had Amsterdam wellicht een Joodse gemeenschap gekend, voornamelijk Asjkenazisch en later gevormd. Maar het kosmopolitische, economisch krachtige en intellectueel vernieuwende Joods Amsterdam van de 17e eeuw is historisch onlosmakelijk verbonden met het Joods-converso Antwerpen.